Online Affairs- Information for Practitioners

Literature reviews are useful as they systematically combine and evaluate the research in a certain field. This provides the reader with a quick overview of the current state of research in the area. In the field of internet infidelity and online affairs two literature reviews have been published so far:

Hertlein, K. M. & Piercy, F. P. (2006). Internet infidelity: A critical review of the literature. The Family Journal: Counseling and Therapy for Couples and Families 14(4), 366-371.

• Hertlein and Piercy’s review provides a systematic and critical review of research studies published before 2006, when internet infidelity was still an emerging topic.

Vossler, A. (2016). Internet Infidelity 10 Years On: A critical review of the literature. The Family Journal: Counseling and Therapy for Couples and Families, 24(4), 359-366.

• This second review focuses on research studies published between 2006 and 2016. The aim was to present the state of knowledge in the field ten years after Hertlein and Piercy’s review.

The published research has, so far, not led to a widely accepted, objective definition of internet infidelity. Instead, research has underlined that definitions will depend on the subjective stance of the person defining the infidelity, such as their gender, experience with infidelity (e.g. as ‘engaged’ or ‘recipient’ partner), age, or personal and moral values. More recent research has started to focus on the differences between internet versus non-internet infidelity and the perceptions of different groups affected by problematic online behaviour.

Gerson, M. (2011). Cyberspace betrayal: Attachment in an era of virtual connection. Journal of Family Psychotherapy, 22(2), 148-156.

Groothof, H. A. K., Dijkstra, P. & Barelds, D. P. H. (2009). Sex differences in jealousy: The case of Internet infidelity. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 26(8), 1119-1129.

Grov, C., Gillespie, B. J., Royce, T., & Lever, J. (2011). Perceived consequences of casual online sexual activities on heterosexual relationships: A U.S. online survey. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 40(2), 429-439.

Hackathorn, J. (2009). Beyond touching: Evolutionary theory and computer-mediated infidelity. The New School Psychology Bulletin, 6(1), 29-34.

Helsper, E. J. & Whitty, M. T. (2010). Netiquette within married couples: Agreement about acceptable online behavior and surveillance between partners. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(5), 916-926.

Henline, B. H., Lamke, L. K., & Howard, M. D. (2007). Exploring perceptions of online infidelity. Personal Relationships, 14(1), 113-128.

Hertlein, K. M. & Piercy, F. P. (2008). Therapists’ assessment and treatment of internet infidelity cases. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 34(4), 481-497.

Jones, K. E. & Hertlein, K. M. (2012). Four key dimensions for distinguishing Internet infidelity from Internet and sex addiction: Concepts and clinical application. The American Journal of Family Therapy, 40(2), 115-125.

Mileham, B. L. A. (2007). Online infidelity in Internet chat rooms: an ethnographic exploration. Computers in Human Behavior, 23(1), 11-31.

Shaugnessy, K., Byers, S., & Thornton, S. J. (2011). What is cybersex? Heterosexual students’ definitions. International Journal of Sexual Health, 23(2), 79-89.

Whitty, M. T. (2003). Pushing the wrong buttons: Men’s and women’s attitudes towards online and offline infidelity. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 6(6), 569–579.

Whitty, M. T. & Quigley, L. (2008). Emotional and sexual infidelity offline and in cyberspace. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 34(4), 461-468.

Wilson, K., Mattingly, B. A., Clark, E. M., Weidler, D. J., & Bequette, A. W. (2011). The gray area: Exploring attitudes toward infidelity and the development of the Perceptions of Dating Infidelity Scale. The Journal of Social Psychology, 151(1), 63–86.

In recent years research studies have started to investigate the perception and impact of infidelity activities in specific online contexts, such as Facebook and other social networking sites:

Abbasi, I. S. & Alghamdi, N.G. (2017). When Flirting Turns Into Infidelity: The Facebook Dilemma. The American Journal of Family Therapy, 45(1), 1, 1-14.

Clayton, R.B., Naguerny, A. & Smith, J.R. (2013). Cheating, breakup, and divorce: Is Facebook use to blame? Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 16(10), 717-720.

Cravens, J. D., Leckie, K. R., & Whiting, J. B. (2013). Facebook infidelity: When poking becomes problematic.Contemporary Family Therapy, 35(1), 74-90.

Cravens, J.D. & Whiting, J.B. (2014). Clinical implications of Internet infidelity: Where Facebook fits in. The American Journal of Family Therapy, 42(4), 325-339.

Cravens, D.J. & Whiting, J.B. (2015). Fooling Around on Facebook: The Perceptions of Infidelity Behavior on Social Networking Sites. Journal of Couple & Relationship Therapy, 15(3), 213-231.

Muscanell, N.L., Guadagno, R.E., Rice, L. & Murphy, S. (2013). Don’t it make my brown eyes green? An analysis of Facebook use and romantic jealousy. Cyberpsychology, Behaviour and Social Networking, 16(4), 237-242.

The literature on factors which contribute to internet infidelity covers the theoretical discussion on people getting involved in online activities and behaviors that can be classified as internet infidelity. These publications specifically refer to the models of internet-related vulnerabilities that have been developed to conceptualise the seductive character of internet websites and chat rooms. However, there is still a lack of research which focuses on validating – or proving - the proposed factors and models of internet-related vulnerabilities, which considerably limits their explanatory power.

Cooper, A. (2000). Cybersex: The dark side of the force. New York, USA: Brunner-Routledge.

Cooper, A. (2002). Sex and the Internet: A guidebook for clinicians. New York, USA: Brunner-Routledge.

Daneback, K., Cooper, A. & Mansson, S. (2005). An internet study of cybersex participants. Archives of sexual behavior, 34(3), 321-328.

Hertlein, K. M. & Blumer, L. C. (2014). The couple and family technology framework: Intimate relationships in a digital age. New York, USA: Routledge.

Hertlein, K. M. & Stevenson, A. (2010). The Seven “As” contributing to Internet-related intimacy problems: A literature review. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 4(1), article 3. Retrieved from https://cyberpsychology.eu/article/view/4230/3273

King, S.A. (1999). Internet gambling and pornography: Illustrative examples of psychological consequences of communication anarchy. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 2(3), 175-193.

Mileham, B. L. A. (2007). Online infidelity in Internet chat rooms: an ethnographic exploration. Computers in Human Behavior, 23(1), 11-31.

Ross, M. W., & Kauth, M. R. (2003). Men who have sex with men, and the Internet: Emerging clinical issues and their management. In A. Cooper (Ed.), Sex and the Internet: A guidebook for clinicians (pp. 47-69). New York, USA: Brunner-Routledge.

Young, K. S. (2006). Online infidelity: Evaluation and treatment implications. Journal of Couple and Relationship Therapy, 5(2), 43-56.

Young, K. S., Cooper, A., Griffin-Shelley, E., Buchanan, J. & O’Mara, J. (2000). Cybersex and Infidelity Online: Implications for evaluation and treatment. Sexual Addiction and Compulsivity, 7(1), 59-74.

Broadly, the research findings on the impact of internet infidelity mirrors the research on offline infidelity. For example, in terms of the potentially very negative, or even traumatising, effects once the activities are disclosed, as well as the gender differences regarding the responses to infidelity. Research has found that online acts of betrayal are perceived to be as serious as offline acts of betrayal.

Cavaglion, G. & Rashty, E. (2010). Narratives of suffering among Italian female partners of cybersex and cyber-porn dependents. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity: The Journal of Treatment & Prevention, 17(4), 270-287.

Dijkstra, P., Barelds, D. P. H. & Groothof, H. A. K. (2013). Jealousy in response to online and offline infidelity: the role of sex and sexual orientation. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 54(4), 328-336.

Groothof, H. A. K., Dijkstra, P. & Barelds, D. P. H. (2009). Sex differences in jealousy: The case of Internet infidelity. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 26(8), 1119-1129.

Guadagno, R. E. & Sagarin, B. J. (2010). Sex differences in jealousy: An evolutionary perspective on online infidelity. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 40(10), 2636-2655.

Hertlein, K. M. & Webster, M. (2008). Technology, Relationships, and Problems: A Research Synthesis. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 34(4), 445-460.

Mao, A. & Raguram, A. (2009). Online infidelity: The new challenge to marriages. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 51(4), 302-304.

Schneider, J. P., Weiss, R. & Samenow, C. (2012). Is it really Cheating? Understanding the emotional reactions and clinical treatment of spouses and partners affected by cybersex infidelity. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity: The Journal of Treatment & Prevention, 19(1-2), 123-139.

The published treatment frameworks for internet infidelity generally blend traditional approaches and methods from couple therapy with more specific elements to address the effects of internet infidelity on the relationship. In working with internet infidelity, practitioners in the field have been reported to generally employ approaches like emotionally focused therapies, transgenerational theories and solution-focused concepts. Whilst the body of research knowledge on how practitioners experience and conceptualise their therapeutic work with internet infidelity has grown, there is still no empirical evidence for the effectiveness of treatment models, let alone a commonly agreed and empirically validated treatment approach for internet infidelity. Therapists’ treatment approach – as is the case with their perception of problematic online behavior – seems to be influenced by their own preferences, as well as personal values and biases.

Goldberg, P. D., Peterson, B. D., Rosen, K. H. & Sara, M. L. (2008). Cybersex: the impact of a contemporary problem on the practices of marriage and family therapists. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 34(4), 469-480.

Hertlein, K. M. (2011). Therapeutic dilemmas in treating Internet infidelity. The American Journal of Family Therapy, 39(2), 162-173.

Hertlein, K. M. & Piercy, F. P. (2008). Therapists’ assessment and treatment of internet infidelity cases. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 34(4), 481-497.

Hertlein, K. M. & Piercy, F. P. (2012). Essential elements of Internet infidelity treatment. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 38(s1), 257-270.

Hertlein, K. M. & Weeks, G. R. (2007). Two roads diverging in a wood: The Current State of Infidelity Research and Treatment. Journal of Couple & Relationship Therapy: Innovations in Clinical and Educational Interventions, 6(1-2), 95-107.

Jones, K. E. & Tuttle, A. E. (2012). Clinical and ethical considerations for the treatment of cybersex addiction for Marriage and Family Therapists. Journal of Couple & Relationship Therapy: Innovations in Clinical and Educational Interventions, 11(4), 274-290.

Shaw, J. (1997). Treatment rationale for Internet infidelity. Journal of Sex Education and Therapy, 22(1), 29-34.

Young, K.S. (2006). Online infidelity: Evaluation and treatment implications. Journal of Couple and Relationship Therapy, 5(2), 43-56.